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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="Hacker_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Hacker (disambiguation)">Hacker (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile computer-hacking"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="Security_hacker" title="Security hacker">Computer hacking</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="List_of_security_hacking_incidents" title="List of security hacking incidents">History</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Phreaking" title="Phreaking">Phreaking</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptovirology" title="Cryptovirology">Cryptovirology</a></li>

<li><a href="Hacking_of_consumer_electronics" title="Hacking of consumer electronics">Hacking of consumer electronics</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_hackers" title="List of hackers">List of hackers</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Hacker_culture" title="Hacker culture">Hacker culture</a> and <a href="Hacker_ethic" title="Hacker ethic">ethic</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Hackathon" title="Hackathon">Hackathon</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Hacker_Manifesto" title="Hacker Manifesto">Hacker Manifesto</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Hackerspace" title="Hackerspace">Hackerspace</a></li>

<li><a href="Hacktivism" title="Hacktivism">Hacktivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Maker_culture" title="Maker culture">Maker culture</a></li>

<li>Types of

<ul><li><a href="Black_hat_(computer_security)" title="Black hat (computer security)">Black hat</a></li>

<li><a href="White_hat_(computer_security)" title="White hat (computer security)">White hat</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Computer_security_conference" title="Computer security conference">Conferences</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Black_Hat_Briefings" title="Black Hat Briefings">Black Hat Briefings</a></li>

<li><a href="Chaos_Communication_Congress" title="Chaos Communication Congress">Chaos Communication Congress</a></li>

<li><a href="Hackers_on_Planet_Earth" title="Hackers on Planet Earth">Hackers on Planet Earth</a></li>

<li><a href="Security_BSides" title="Security BSides">Security BSides</a></li>

<li><a href="ShmooCon" title="ShmooCon">ShmooCon</a></li>

<li><a href="Summercon" title="Summercon">Summercon</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Computer_crime" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer crime">Computer crime</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Crimeware" title="Crimeware">Crimeware</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_computer_criminals" class="mw-redirect" title="List of computer criminals">List of computer criminals</a></li>

<li><a href="Script_kiddie" title="Script kiddie">Script kiddie</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Hacking_tool" class="mw-redirect" title="Hacking tool">Hacking tools</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Exploit_(computer_security)" title="Exploit (computer security)">Exploit</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_digital_forensics_tools#Forensics-focused_operating_systems" title="List of digital forensics tools">forensics-focused operating systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Payload_(computing)" title="Payload (computing)">Payload</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_engineering_(security)" title="Social engineering (security)">Social engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Vulnerability_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulnerability (computing)">Vulnerability</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Hacker_culture" title="Hacker culture">Practice sites</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="HackThisSite" title="HackThisSite">HackThisSite</a></li>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Malware" title="Malware">Malware</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Rootkit" title="Rootkit">Rootkit</a></li>

<li><a href="Backdoor_(computing)" title="Backdoor (computing)">Backdoor</a></li>

<li><a href="Trojan_horse_(computing)" title="Trojan horse (computing)">Trojan horse</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_virus" title="Computer virus">Virus</a></li>

<li><a href="Spyware" title="Spyware">Spyware</a></li>

<li><a href="Ransomware" title="Ransomware">Ransomware</a></li>

<li><a href="Logic_bomb" title="Logic bomb">Logic bomb</a></li>

<li><a href="Botnet" title="Botnet">Botnet</a></li>

<li><a href="Keystroke_logging" title="Keystroke logging">Keystroke logging</a></li>

<li><a href="Web_shell" title="Web shell">Web shell</a></li>

<li><a href="Infostealer" title="Infostealer">Infostealer</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Computer_security" title="Computer security">Computer security</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Application_security" title="Application security">Application security</a></li>

<li><a href="Cloud_computing_security" title="Cloud computing security">Cloud computing security</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_security" title="Network security">Network security</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Hacker_group" title="Hacker group">Groups</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Anonymous_(group)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anonymous (group)">Anonymous</a></li>

<li><a href="Chaos_Computer_Club" title="Chaos Computer Club">Chaos Computer Club</a></li>

<li><a href="Homebrew_Computer_Club" title="Homebrew Computer Club">Homebrew Computer Club</a> (defunct)</li>

<li><a href="Legion_of_Doom_(hacking)" class="mw-redirect" title="Legion of Doom (hacking)">Legion of Doom</a> (defunct)</li>

<li><a href="LulzSec" title="LulzSec">LulzSec</a> (defunct)</li>

<li><a href="Masters_of_Deception" title="Masters of Deception">Masters of Deception</a> (defunct)</li>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Publications</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><i><a href="2600%3A_The_Hacker_Quarterly" title="2600: The Hacker Quarterly">2600: The Hacker Quarterly</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Hacker_News" title="Hacker News">Hacker News</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Nuts_and_Volts" title="Nuts and Volts">Nuts and Volts</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Phrack" title="Phrack">Phrack</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td>

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<p>A <b>hacker</b> is a person skilled in <a href="Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a> who achieves goals and solves problems by non-standard means. The term has become associated in <a href="Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">popular culture</a> with a <a href="Security_hacker" title="Security hacker">security hacker</a> – someone with knowledge of <a href="Bug_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bug (computing)">bugs</a> or <a href="Exploit_(computer_security)" title="Exploit (computer security)">exploits</a> to break into computer systems and access <a href="Data" title="Data">data</a> which would otherwise be inaccessible to them. In a positive connotation, though, hacking can also be utilized by legitimate figures in legal situations. For example, <a href="Law_enforcement_agencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Law enforcement agencies">law enforcement agencies</a> sometimes use hacking techniques to collect evidence on criminals and other malicious actors. This could include using anonymity tools (such as a <a href="Virtual_private_network" title="Virtual private network">VPN</a> or the <a href="Dark_web" title="Dark web">dark web</a>) to mask their identities online and pose as criminals.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Hacking can also have a broader sense of any roundabout solution to a problem, or programming and hardware development in general, and <a href="Hacker_culture" title="Hacker culture">hacker culture</a> has spread the term's broader usage to the general public even outside the profession or hobby of electronics (see <a href="Life_hack" title="Life hack">life hack</a>).

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div>

<p>The term "hacker" is an agent noun formed from the verb "hack"<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> based on PIE *keg- (hook, tooth),<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is also the source of the Russian word kogot "claw".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Security_hacker" title="Security hacker">Security hacker</a>, <a href="White_hat_(computer_security)" title="White hat (computer security)">White hat (computer security)</a>, <a href="Black_hat_(computer_security)" title="Black hat (computer security)">Black hat (computer security)</a>, and <a href="Grey_hat" title="Grey hat">Grey hat</a></div>

<p>Reflecting the two types of hackers, there are two definitions of the word "hacker":

</p>

<ol><li>Originally, hacker simply meant advanced computer technology enthusiast (both hardware and software) and adherent of programming subculture; see <a href="Hacker_culture" title="Hacker culture">hacker culture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Someone who is able to subvert <a href="Computer_security" title="Computer security">computer security</a>. If doing so for malicious purposes, the person can also be called a <a href="Security_hacker" title="Security hacker">cracker</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-rfc1983_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rfc1983-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol>

<p>Mainstream usage of "hacker" mostly refers to computer criminals, due to the mass media usage of the word since the 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This includes what hacker jargon calls <a href="Script_kiddie" title="Script kiddie">script kiddies</a>, less skilled criminals who rely on tools written by others with very little knowledge about the way they work.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This usage has become so predominant that the general public is largely unaware that different meanings exist.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though the self-designation of hobbyists as hackers is generally acknowledged and accepted by computer security hackers, people from the programming subculture consider the computer intrusion related usage incorrect, and emphasize the difference between the two by calling security breakers "crackers" (analogous to a <a href="Safecracker" class="mw-redirect" title="Safecracker">safecracker</a>).

</p><p>The controversy is usually based on the assertion that the term originally meant someone messing about with something in a positive sense, that is, using playful cleverness to achieve a goal. But then, it is supposed, the meaning of the term shifted over the decades and came to refer to computer criminals.<sup id="cite_ref-rfc1392_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rfc1392-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>As the security-related usage has spread more widely, the original meaning has become less known. In popular usage and in the media, "computer intruders" or "computer criminals" is the exclusive meaning of the word. In computer enthusiast and hacker culture, the primary meaning is a complimentary description for a particularly brilliant programmer or technical expert. A large segment of the technical community insist the latter is the correct usage, as in the <a href="Jargon_File" title="Jargon File">Jargon File</a> definition.

</p><p>Sometimes, "hacker" is simply used synonymously with "<a href="Geek" title="Geek">geek</a>": "A true hacker is not a group person. He's a person who loves to stay up all night, he and the machine in a love-hate relationship... They're kids who tended to be brilliant but not very interested in conventional goals It's a term of derision and also the ultimate compliment."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Fred_Shapiro" class="mw-redirect" title="Fred Shapiro">Fred Shapiro</a> thinks that "the common theory that 'hacker' originally was a benign term and the malicious connotations of the word were a later perversion is untrue." He found that the malicious connotations were already present at MIT in 1963 (quoting <i><a href="The_Tech_(newspaper)" title="The Tech (newspaper)">The Tech</a></i>, an MIT student newspaper), and at that time referred to unauthorized users of the telephone network,<sup id="cite_ref-shapiro_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shapiro-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that is, the <a href="Phreaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Phreaker">phreaker</a> movement that developed into the computer security hacker subculture of today.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civic_hacker">Civic hacker</h3></div>

<p>Civic hackers use their security and <a href="Software_development" title="Software development">programming acumens</a> to create solutions, often public and <a href="Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">open-sourced</a>, addressing challenges relevant to neighborhoods, cities, states or countries and the infrastructure within them.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Municipalities and major government agencies such as <a href="NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> have been known to host <a href="Hackathon" title="Hackathon">hackathons</a> or promote a specific date as a "National Day of Civic Hacking" to encourage participation from civic hackers.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Civic hackers, though often operating autonomously and independently, may work alongside or in coordination with certain aspects of government or local infrastructure such as trains and buses.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in 2008, Philadelphia-based civic hacker <a href="William_Entriken" title="William Entriken">William Entriken</a> developed a web application that displayed a comparison of the actual arrival times of local <a href="SEPTA" title="SEPTA">SEPTA</a> trains to their scheduled times after being reportedly frustrated by the discrepancy.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Security-related_hacking">Security-related hacking</h3></div>

<p><a href="Security_hacker" title="Security hacker">Security hackers</a> are people involved with circumvention of computer security. There are several types, including:

</p>

<dl><dt><a href="White_hat_(computer_security)" title="White hat (computer security)">White hat</a></dt>

<dd>Hackers who work to keep data safe from other hackers by finding system <a href="Vulnerability_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulnerability (computing)">vulnerabilities</a> that can be mitigated. White hats are usually employed by the target system's owner and are typically paid (sometimes quite well) for their work. Their work is not illegal because it is done with the system owner's consent.</dd></dl>

<dl><dt><a href="Black_hat_hacking" class="mw-redirect" title="Black hat hacking">Black hat</a> or Cracker</dt>

<dd>Hackers with malicious intentions. They often steal, exploit, and sell data, and are usually motivated by personal gain. Their work is usually illegal. A cracker is like a black hat hacker,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but is specifically someone who is very skilled and tries via hacking to make profits or to benefit, not just to vandalize. Crackers find exploits for system vulnerabilities and often use them to their advantage by either selling the fix to the system owner or selling the exploit to other black hat hackers, who in turn use it to steal information or gain royalties.</dd></dl>

<dd>Computer security experts who may sometimes violate laws or typical <a href="Hacker_ethic" title="Hacker ethic">ethical standards</a>, but do not have the malicious intent typical of a black hat hacker.</dd></dl>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hacker_culture">Hacker culture</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Hacker_culture" title="Hacker culture">Hacker culture</a></div>

<p><a href="Hacker_culture" title="Hacker culture">Hacker culture</a> is an idea derived from a community of enthusiast <a href="Computer_programmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer programmer">computer programmers</a> and <a href="Systems_designer" class="mw-redirect" title="Systems designer">systems designers</a> in the 1960s around the <a href="Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>'s (MIT's) <a href="Tech_Model_Railroad_Club" title="Tech Model Railroad Club">Tech Model Railroad Club</a> (TMRC)<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="MIT_Artificial_Intelligence_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory">MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept expanded to the hobbyist home computing community, focusing on hardware in the late 1970s (e.g. the <a href="Homebrew_Computer_Club" title="Homebrew Computer Club">Homebrew Computer Club</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and on software (<a href="Video_game" title="Video game">video games</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Software_cracking" title="Software cracking">software cracking</a>, the <a href="Demoscene" title="Demoscene">demoscene</a>) in the 1980s/1990s. Later, this would go on to encompass many new definitions such as art, and <a href="Life_hacking" class="mw-redirect" title="Life hacking">life hacking</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Motives">Motives</h2></div>

<p>Four primary motives have been proposed as possibilities for why hackers attempt to break into computers and networks. First, there is a criminal financial gain to be had when hacking systems with the specific purpose of stealing <a href="Credit_card_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Credit card number">credit card numbers</a> or manipulating <a href="Banking_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Banking system">banking systems</a>. Second, many hackers thrive off of increasing their reputation within the hacker subculture and will leave their handles on websites they defaced or leave some other evidence as proof that they were involved in a specific hack. Third, <a href="Corporate_espionage" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate espionage">corporate espionage</a> allows companies to acquire information on products or services that can be stolen or used as leverage within the marketplace. Lastly, state-sponsored attacks provide nation states with both wartime and intelligence collection options conducted on, in, or through <a href="Cyberspace" title="Cyberspace">cyberspace</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overlaps_and_differences">Overlaps and differences</h2></div>

<p>The main basic difference between programmer subculture and computer security hacker is their mostly separate historical origin and development. However, the <i>Jargon File</i> reports that considerable overlap existed for the early phreaking at the beginning of the 1970s. An article from MIT's student paper <i>The Tech</i> used the term hacker in this context already in 1963 in its pejorative meaning for someone messing with the phone system.<sup id="cite_ref-shapiro_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shapiro-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The overlap quickly started to break when people joined in the activity who did it in a less responsible way.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was the case after the publication of an article exposing the activities of Draper and Engressia.

</p><p>According to Raymond, hackers from the programmer subculture usually work openly and use their real name, while computer security hackers prefer secretive groups and identity-concealing aliases.<sup id="cite_ref-Raymond-cracker_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raymond-cracker-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, their activities in practice are largely distinct. The former focus on creating new and improving existing infrastructure (especially the software environment they work with), while the latter primarily and strongly emphasize the general act of circumvention of security measures, with the effective use of the knowledge (which can be to report and help fixing the security bugs, or exploitation reasons) being only rather secondary. The most visible difference in these views was in the design of the MIT hackers' <a href="Incompatible_Timesharing_System" title="Incompatible Timesharing System">Incompatible Timesharing System</a>, which deliberately did not have any security measures.

</p><p>There are some subtle overlaps, however, since basic knowledge about computer security is also common within the programmer subculture of hackers. For example, Ken Thompson noted during his 1983 <a href="Turing_Award" title="Turing Award">Turing Award</a> lecture that it is possible to add code to the <a href="UNIX" class="mw-redirect" title="UNIX">UNIX</a> "login" command that would accept either the intended encrypted <a href="Password" title="Password">password</a> or a particular known password, allowing a backdoor into the system with the latter password. He named his invention the "<a href="Trojan_horse_(computing)" title="Trojan horse (computing)">Trojan horse</a>". Furthermore, Thompson argued, the <a href="Compiler" title="Compiler">C compiler</a> itself could be modified to automatically generate the rogue code, to make detecting the modification even harder. Because the compiler is itself a program generated from a compiler, the Trojan horse could also be automatically installed in a new compiler program, without any detectable modification to the source of the new compiler. However, Thompson disassociated himself strictly from the computer security hackers: "I would like to criticize the press in its handling of the 'hackers,' the <a href="The_414s" title="The 414s">414 gang</a>, the Dalton gang, etc. The acts performed by these kids are vandalism at best and probably trespass and theft at worst. ... I have watched kids testifying before Congress. It is clear that they are completely unaware of the seriousness of their acts."<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The programmer subculture of hackers sees secondary circumvention of security mechanisms as legitimate if it is done to get practical barriers out of the way for doing actual work. In special forms, that can even be an expression of playful cleverness.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the systematic and primary engagement in such activities is not one of the actual interests of the programmer subculture of hackers and it does not have significance in its actual activities, either.<sup id="cite_ref-Raymond-cracker_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raymond-cracker-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A further difference is that, historically, members of the programmer subculture of hackers were working at academic institutions and used the computing environment there. In contrast, the prototypical computer security hacker had access exclusively to a home computer and a modem. However, since the mid-1990s, with home computers that could run Unix-like operating systems and with inexpensive internet home access being available for the first time, many people from outside of the academic world started to take part in the programmer subculture of hacking.

</p><p>Since the mid-1980s, there are some overlaps in ideas and members with the computer security hacking community. The most prominent case is Robert T. Morris, who was a user of MIT-AI, yet wrote the <a href="Morris_worm" title="Morris worm">Morris worm</a>. The <i>Jargon File</i> hence calls him "a true hacker who blundered".<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, members of the programmer subculture have a tendency to look down on and disassociate from these overlaps. They commonly refer disparagingly to people in the computer security subculture as crackers and refuse to accept any definition of hacker that encompasses such activities. The computer security hacking subculture, on the other hand, tends not to distinguish between the two subcultures as harshly, acknowledging that they have much in common including many members, political and social goals, and a love of learning about technology. They restrict the use of the term cracker to their categories of <a href="Script_kiddie" title="Script kiddie">script kiddies</a> and black hat hackers instead.

</p>

<p>All three subcultures have relations to hardware modifications. In the early days of network hacking, phreaks were building <a href="Blue_box" title="Blue box">blue boxes</a> and various variants. The programmer subculture of hackers has stories about several hardware hacks in its folklore, such as a mysterious "magic" switch attached to a PDP-10 computer in MIT's AI lab that, when switched off, crashed the computer.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early hobbyist hackers built their home computers themselves from construction kits. However, all these activities have died out during the 1980s when the phone network switched to digitally controlled switchboards, causing network hacking to shift to dialing remote computers with modems when pre-assembled inexpensive home computers were available and when academic institutions started to give individual mass-produced workstation computers to scientists instead of using a central timesharing system. The only kind of widespread hardware modification nowadays is <a href="Case_modding" title="Case modding">case modding</a>.

</p><p>An encounter of the programmer and the computer security hacker subculture occurred at the end of the 1980s, when a group of computer security hackers, sympathizing with the <a href="Chaos_Computer_Club" title="Chaos Computer Club">Chaos Computer Club</a> (which disclaimed any knowledge in these activities), broke into computers of American military organizations and academic institutions. They sold data from these machines to the Soviet secret service, one of them in order to fund his drug addiction. The case was solved when <a href="Clifford_Stoll" title="Clifford Stoll">Clifford Stoll</a>, a scientist working as a system administrator, found ways to log the attacks and to trace them back (with the help of many others). <i><a href="23_(film)" title="23 (film)">23</a></i>, a German film adaption with fictional elements, shows the events from the attackers' perspective. Stoll described the case in his book <i><a href="The_Cuckoo's_Egg" class="mw-redirect" title="The Cuckoo's Egg">The Cuckoo's Egg</a></i> and in the TV documentary <i>The KGB, the Computer, and Me</i> from the other perspective. According to Eric S. Raymond, it "nicely illustrates the difference between 'hacker' and 'cracker'. Stoll's portrait of himself, his lady Martha, and his friends at Berkeley and on the Internet paints a marvelously vivid picture of how hackers and the people around them like to live and how they think."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Representation_in_media">Representation in media</h2></div>

<p>The <a href="Mainstream_media" title="Mainstream media">mainstream media</a>'s current usage of the term may be traced back to the early 1980s. When the term, previously used only among computer enthusiasts, was introduced to wider society by the mainstream media in 1983,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> even those in the computer community referred to computer intrusion as hacking, although not as the exclusive definition of the word. In reaction to the increasing media use of the term exclusively with the criminal connotation, the computer community began to differentiate their terminology. Alternative terms such as <a href="Security_cracking" class="mw-redirect" title="Security cracking">cracker</a> were coined in an effort to maintain the distinction between hackers within the legitimate programmer community and those performing computer break-ins. Further terms such as <a href="Black_hat_hacking" class="mw-redirect" title="Black hat hacking">black hat</a>, <a href="White_hat_(computer_security)" title="White hat (computer security)">white hat</a> and <a href="Gray_hat" class="mw-redirect" title="Gray hat">gray hat</a> developed when laws against breaking into computers came into effect, to distinguish criminal activities from those activities which were legal.

</p><p><a href="News_media_in_the_United_States" title="News media in the United States">Network news'</a> use of the term consistently pertains primarily to criminal activities, despite attempts by the technical community to preserve and distinguish the original meaning. Today, the mainstream media and general public continue to describe computer criminals, with all levels of technical sophistication, as "hackers" and do not generally make use of the word in any of its non-criminal connotations. Members of the media sometimes seem unaware of the distinction, grouping legitimate "hackers" such as <a href="Linus_Torvalds" title="Linus Torvalds">Linus Torvalds</a> and <a href="Steve_Wozniak" title="Steve Wozniak">Steve Wozniak</a> along with criminal "crackers".<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>As a result, the definition is still the subject of heated controversy. The wider dominance of the pejorative connotation is resented by many who object to the term being taken from their cultural <a href="Jargon" title="Jargon">jargon</a> and used negatively,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including those who have historically preferred to self-identify as hackers. Many advocate using the more recent and nuanced alternate terms when describing criminals and others who negatively take advantage of security flaws in software and hardware. Others prefer to follow common popular usage, arguing that the positive form is confusing and unlikely to become widespread in the general public. A minority still use the term in both senses despite the controversy, leaving context to clarify (or leave ambiguous) which meaning is intended.

</p><p>However, because the positive definition of hacker was widely used as the predominant form for many years before the negative definition was popularized, "hacker" can therefore be seen as a <a href="Shibboleth" title="Shibboleth">shibboleth</a>, identifying those who use the technically oriented sense (as opposed to the exclusively intrusion-oriented sense) as members of the computing community. On the other hand, due to the variety of industries software designers may find themselves in, many prefer not to be referred to as hackers because the word holds a negative denotation in many of those industries.

</p><p>A possible middle ground position has been suggested, based on the observation that "hacking" describes a collection of skills and tools which are used by hackers of both descriptions for differing reasons. The analogy is made to <a href="Locksmithing" title="Locksmithing">locksmithing</a>, specifically picking locks, which is a skill which can be used for good or evil. The primary weakness of this analogy is the inclusion of <a href="Script_kiddies" class="mw-redirect" title="Script kiddies">script kiddies</a> in the popular usage of "hacker", despite their lack of an underlying skill and knowledge base.

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Script_kiddie" title="Script kiddie">Script kiddie</a>, an unskilled computer security attacker</li>

<li><a href="Hacktivism" title="Hacktivism">Hacktivism</a>, conducting cyber attacks on a business or organisation in order to bring social change</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i><a href="Hackers%3A_Heroes_of_the_Computer_Revolution" title="Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution">Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution</a></i>. 1984.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-rfc1983-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rfc1983_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFG._Malkin1996" class="citation cs1">G. Malkin, ed. (August 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1983"><i>Internet Users' Glossary</i></a>. Network Working Group. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC1983">10.17487/RFC1983</a></span>. FYI 18. <a href="Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">RFC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1983">1983</a>.</cite> <i>Informational.</i> Obsoletes RFC <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc1392">1392</a>.

</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSkillings2020" class="citation web cs1">Skillings, Jon (27 May 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200528205149/https://www.cnet.com/news/in-95-these-people-defined-tech-gates-gosling-bezos-mitnick-and-more/">"In '95, these people defined tech: Gates, Bezos, Mitnick and more"</a>. <i><a href="CNET" title="CNET">CNET</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnet.com/news/in-95-these-people-defined-tech-gates-gosling-bezos-mitnick-and-more/">the original</a> on 28 May 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2020</span>. <q>The term "hacker" started out with a benign definition: It described computer programmers who were especially adept at solving technical problems. By the mid-1990s, however, it was widely used to refer to those who turned their skills toward breaking into computers, whether for mild mischief or criminal gain. Which brings us to <a href="Kevin_Mitnick" title="Kevin Mitnick">Kevin Mitnick</a>.</q></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSamuel_ChngHan_Yu_LuAyush_KumarDavid_Yau2022" class="citation journal cs1">Samuel Chng; Han Yu Lu; Ayush Kumar; David Yau (Mar 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chbr.2022.100167">"Hacker types, motivations and strategies: A comprehensive framework"</a>. <i>Computers in Human Behavior Reports</i>. <b>5</b>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chbr.2022.100167">10.1016/j.chbr.2022.100167</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2451-9588">2451-9588</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFYagoda" class="citation magazine cs1">Yagoda, Ben. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/a-short-history-of-hack">"A Short History of "Hack""</a>. <i>The New Yorker</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151110004249/http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/a-short-history-of-hack">Archived</a> from the original on November 10, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 3,</span> 2015</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-rfc1392-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rfc1392_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFG._MalkinT._LaQuey_Parker1993" class="citation cs1">G. Malkin; T. LaQuey Parker, eds. (January 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1392"><i>Internet Users' Glossary</i></a>. Network Working Group. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC1392">10.17487/RFC1392</a></span>. FYI 18. <a href="Request_for_Comments" title="Request for Comments">RFC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1392">1392</a>.</cite> <i>Informational.</i> Obsoleted by RFC <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc1983">1983</a>

</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Alan_Kay" title="Alan Kay">Alan Kay</a> quoted in <a href="Stewart_Brand" title="Stewart Brand">Stewart Brand</a>, "S P A C E W A R: Fanatic Life and Symbolic Death Among the Computer Bums:" In <i><a href="Rolling_Stone" title="Rolling Stone">Rolling Stone</a></i> (1972)</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-shapiro-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-shapiro_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shapiro_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Fred Shapiro: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://listserv.linguistlist.org/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0306B&L=ads-l&P=R5831&m=24290">Antedating of "Hacker"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071025200829/http://listserv.linguistlist.org/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0306B&L=ads-l&P=R5831&m=24290">Archived</a> 2007-10-25 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>American Dialect Society Mailing List</i> (13. June 2003)</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://imranontech.com/2008/04/01/the-origin-of-hacker/">"The Origin of "Hacker""</a>. April 1, 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210304085653/https://imranontech.com/2008/04/01/the-origin-of-hacker/">Archived</a> from the original on March 4, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 1,</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">* <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.gov/2013/05/15/what-is-a-civic-hacker/">"What is a Civic Hacker?"</a>. <i>Digital.gov</i>. 2013-05-15. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231103065348/https://digital.gov/2013/05/15/what-is-a-civic-hacker/">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-03</span></span>.</cite>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFFinley" class="citation magazine cs1">Finley, Klint. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/2013/05/national-day-of-hacking/">"White House, NASA Celebrate National Day of Hacking"</a>. <i>Wired</i>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1059-1028">1059-1028</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231103065348/https://www.wired.com/2013/05/national-day-of-hacking/">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-03</span></span>.</cite></li></ul>

</span></li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">* <cite id="CITEREFAbegail2016" class="citation web cs1">Abegail (2016-06-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chhs.ca.gov/blog/2016/06/03/join-us-for-national-day-of-civic-hacking/">"Join Us for National Day of Civic Hacking"</a>. <i>California Health and Human Services</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-03</span></span>.</cite>

<ul><li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2016/06/03/open-data-and-innovation-national-day-civic-hacking-2016">"Open Data and Innovation at the National Day of Civic Hacking 2016"</a>. <i>whitehouse.gov</i>. 2016-06-03. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230602153858/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2016/06/03/open-data-and-innovation-national-day-civic-hacking-2016">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-06-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-03</span></span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/time-to-make-plans-for-junes-national-day-of-civic-hacking">"Time To Make Plans For June's National Day of Civic Hacking - IEEE Spectrum"</a>. <i><a href="IEEE" class="mw-redirect" title="IEEE">IEEE</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231103065350/https://spectrum.ieee.org/time-to-make-plans-for-junes-national-day-of-civic-hacking">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-03</span></span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHong2016" class="citation web cs1">Hong, Albert (2016-06-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://technical.ly/civic-news/national-day-civic-hacking-secondmuse/">"National Day of Civic Hacking is about 'civic bravery'"</a>. <i>Technical.ly</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231103065348/https://technical.ly/civic-news/national-day-civic-hacking-secondmuse/">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-03</span></span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://venturebeat.com/entrepreneur/government-releases-unprecedented-amount-of-data-for-national-day-of-civic-hacking/">"Government releases 'unprecedented amount of data' for National Day of Civic Hacking"</a>. <i>VentureBeat</i>. 2013-05-31. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221004002300/https://venturebeat.com/entrepreneur/government-releases-unprecedented-amount-of-data-for-national-day-of-civic-hacking/">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-10-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-03</span></span>.</cite></li></ul>

</span></li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">* <cite id="CITEREFGallagher2015" class="citation web cs1">Gallagher, Sean (2015-02-25). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2015/02/bus-pass-civic-hackers-open-transit-data-mta-said-would-cost-too-much-to-share/">"Bus pass: Civic hackers open transit data MTA said would cost too much to share"</a>. <i>Ars Technica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231103065349/https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2015/02/bus-pass-civic-hackers-open-transit-data-mta-said-would-cost-too-much-to-share/">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-03</span></span>.</cite>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBabcock2015" class="citation web cs1">Babcock, Stephen (2015-02-25). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://technical.ly/software-development/transit-app-civic-hackers-mta-bus-tracking-data-mobile/">"Thanks to civic hackers, a Montreal company just made Baltimore's bus system more usable"</a>. <i>Technical.ly</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231103065349/https://technical.ly/software-development/transit-app-civic-hackers-mta-bus-tracking-data-mobile/">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-03</span></span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFReyes2014" class="citation web cs1">Reyes, Juliana (2014-01-09). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://technical.ly/civic-news/septa-regional-rail-late-app/">"This app shows you how often SEPTA Regional Rail is late (with fixes)"</a>. <i>Technical.ly</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231103065358/https://technical.ly/civic-news/septa-regional-rail-late-app/">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-03</span></span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFReyes2014" class="citation web cs1">Reyes, Juliana (2014-07-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://technical.ly/civic-news/traffic-court-data-expensive-william-entriken/">"Why does this data from our troubled Philadelphia Traffic Court cost $11K?"</a>. <i>Technical.ly</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231103065349/https://technical.ly/civic-news/traffic-court-data-expensive-william-entriken/">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-03</span></span>.</cite></li></ul>

</span></li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">* <cite id="CITEREFLattanzio2014" class="citation web cs1">Lattanzio, Vince (2014-01-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcphiladelphia.com/news/local/frustrated-over-late-septa-trains-software-developer-creates-app-to-recommend-schedule-changes/2113743/">"Frustrated Over Late SEPTA Trains, Software Developer Creates App Proposing Better Schedules"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231120090928/https://www.nbcphiladelphia.com/news/local/frustrated-over-late-septa-trains-software-developer-creates-app-to-recommend-schedule-changes/2113743/">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-20</span></span>.</cite>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFReyes2014" class="citation web cs1">Reyes, Juliana (2014-01-09). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://technical.ly/civic-news/septa-regional-rail-late-app/">"This app shows you how often SEPTA Regional Rail is late (with fixes)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231204180732/https://technical.ly/civic-news/septa-regional-rail-late-app/">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-12-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-20</span></span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMetro_Magazine_Staff2014" class="citation web cs1">Metro Magazine Staff (2014-01-22). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metro-magazine.com/10038748/septa-rider-creates-app-proposing-better-schedules">"SEPTA rider creates app proposing 'better schedules'"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231120220825/https://www.metro-magazine.com/10038748/septa-rider-creates-app-proposing-better-schedules">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-20</span></span>.</cite></li></ul>

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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110515044743/http://www.pctools.com/security-news/crackers-and-hackers/">"What are crackers and hackers? | Security News"</a>. <i>www.pctools.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pctools.com/security-news/crackers-and-hackers/">the original</a> on May 15, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-09-10</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLondon2015" class="citation web cs1">London, Jay (6 April 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160507193534/https://slice.mit.edu/2015/04/06/happy-birthday-hack/">"Happy 60th Birthday to the Word "Hack""</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://slice.mit.edu/2015/04/06/happy-birthday-hack/">the original</a> on 7 May 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRaymond2000" class="citation web cs1"><a href="Eric_S._Raymond" title="Eric S. Raymond">Raymond, Eric</a> (25 August 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/hacker-history/ar01s02.html">"The Early Hackers"</a>. <i>A Brief History of Hackerdom</i>. Thyrsus Enterprises. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081010145931/http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/hacker-history/ar01s02.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 October 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lloyd, Gene. "Developing Algorithms to Identify Spoofed Internet Traffic". Colorado Technical University, 2014</span>

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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/P/phreaking.html"><i>phreaking</i></a>. The Jargon Lexicon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080921080316/http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/P/phreaking.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2008-09-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-10-18</span></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Stallman2002" class="citation web cs1">Richard Stallman (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/rms-hack.html">"The Hacker Community and Ethics: An Interview with Richard M. Stallman"</a>. GNU Project. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210307234742/https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/rms-hack.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-03-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-10-18</span></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catb.org/jargon/html/pt03.html#bibliography"><i>Part III. Appendices</i></a>. The Jargon Lexicon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080913155658/http://www.catb.org/jargon/html/pt03.html#bibliography">Archived</a> from the original on 2008-09-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-10-18</span></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/magic-story.html"><i>A Story About 'Magic'</i></a>. The Jargon Lexicon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080913164649/http://catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/magic-story.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2008-09-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-10-18</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catb.org/jargon/html/pt03.html"><i>Part III. Appendices</i></a>. The Jargon Lexicon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080913155658/http://www.catb.org/jargon/html/pt03.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2008-09-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-10-18</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDeffree2019" class="citation web cs1">Deffree, Suzanne (2019-09-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.edn.com/hacker-is-used-by-mainstream-media-september-5-1983/">"EDN - 'Hacker' is used by mainstream media, September 5, 1983"</a>. <i>EDN</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200429123857/https://www.edn.com/hacker-is-used-by-mainstream-media-september-5-1983/">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-04-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-09-07</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDuBois" class="citation web cs1">DuBois, Shelley. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110619062251/http://tech.fortune.cnn.com/2011/06/16/a-whos-who-of-hackers/">"A who's who of hackers"</a>. <i>Reporter</i>. Fortune Magazine. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tech.fortune.cnn.com/2011/06/16/a-whos-who-of-hackers/">the original</a> on June 19, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060503072049/http://tmrc.mit.edu/hackers-ref.html">"TMRC site"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tmrc.mit.edu/hackers-ref.html">the original</a> on 2006-05-03.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

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<ul><li>Baker, Bruce D. "Sin and the Hacker Ethic: The Tragedy of Techno-Utopian Ideology in Cyberspace Business Cultures." <i>Journal of Religion and Business Ethics</i> 4.2 (2020): 1+ <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://via.library.depaul.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1152&context=jrbe">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230116223623/https://via.library.depaul.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1152&context=jrbe">Archived</a> 2023-01-16 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li>

<li>Hasse, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://elk.informatik.hs-augsburg.de/tmp/cdrom-oss/hasse_hacker.pdf">Die Hacker: Strukturanalyse einer jugendlichen Subkultur</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170930174851/http://elk.informatik.hs-augsburg.de/tmp/cdrom-oss/hasse_hacker.pdf">Archived</a> 2017-09-30 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (1994)</li>

<li>Himanen, Pekka. <i>The hacker ethic</i> (Random House, 2010).</li>

<li>Himanen, Pekka. "19. The hacker ethic as the culture of the information age." <i>The Network Society</i> (2004): 420+ <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/download/8055465/20100512150452580.pdf#page=440">online</a>.</li>

<li>Holt, Thomas J. "Computer hacking and the hacker subculture." in <i>The palgrave handbook of international cybercrime and cyberdeviance</i> (2020): 725–742.</li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_security">Computer security</h3></div>

<ul><li>Dey, Debabrata, Atanu Lahiri, and Guoying Zhang. "Hacker behavior, network effects, and the security software market."<i> Journal of Management Information Systems</i> 29.2 (2012): 77–108.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDreyfus1997" class="citation book cs1">Dreyfus, Suelette (1997). <i><a href="Underground_(Suelette_Dreyfus_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Underground (Suelette Dreyfus book)">Underground: Tales of Hacking, Madness and Obsession on the Electronic Frontier</a></i>. Mandarin. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-86330-595-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHafnerMarkoff1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Katie_Hafner" title="Katie Hafner">Hafner, Katie</a>; <a href="John_Markoff" title="John Markoff">Markoff, John</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cyberpunk00kati"><i>Cyberpunk: Outlaws and Hackers on the Computer Frontier</i></a>. New York: <a href="Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-671-68322-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLevy2002" class="citation book cs1">Levy, Steven (2002). <i>Crypto: How the Code Rebels Beat the Government Saving Privacy in the Digital Age</i>. Penguin. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-14-024432-8</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li>Logik Bomb: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://insecure.org/stf/hackenc.txt">Hacker's Encyclopedia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070708204945/http://insecure.org/stf/hackenc.txt">Archived</a> 2007-07-08 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (1997)</li>

<li>Revelation: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.textfiles.com/hacking/ulimate.txt">The Ultimate Beginner's Guide to Hacking & Phreaking</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160905213959/http://www.textfiles.com/hacking/ulimate.txt">Archived</a> 2016-09-05 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (1996)</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSlatallaJoshua_Quittner1995" class="citation book cs1">Slatalla, Michelle; Joshua Quittner (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mastersofdecepti1994slat"><i>Masters of Deception: The Gang That Ruled Cyberspace</i></a></span>. HarperCollins. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-06-017030-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSterling1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Bruce_Sterling" title="Bruce Sterling">Sterling, Bruce</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hackercrackdownl00ster"><i>The Hacker Crackdown</i></a>. Bantam. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-553-08058-X</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1999" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Paul A. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://insecure.org/stf/them_and_us.txt"><i>Hackers: Crime in the Digital Sublime</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-415-18072-6</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090309104312/http://insecure.org/stf/them_and_us.txt">Archived</a> from the original on 2009-03-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-03-08</span></span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFThomas2002" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Douglas (2002). <i><a href="Hacker_Culture" title="Hacker Culture">Hacker Culture</a></i>. University of Minnesota Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-8166-3345-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFVerton2002" class="citation book cs1">Verton, Dan (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hackerdiariescon0000vert"><i>The Hacker Diaries: Confessions of Teenage Hackers</i></a></span>. McGraw-Hill Osborne Media. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-07-222364-2</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Free_software/open_source">Free software/open source</h3></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFGraham2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Paul_Graham_(computer_programmer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Graham (computer programmer)">Graham, Paul</a> (2004). <i><a href="Hackers_and_Painters" class="mw-redirect" title="Hackers and Painters">Hackers and Painters</a></i>. Beijing: O'Reilly. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-596-00662-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHimanen2001" class="citation book cs1">Himanen, Pekka (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hackerethic00pekk"><i>The Hacker Ethic and the Spirit of the Information Age</i></a>. Random House. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-375-50566-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLakhaniWolf2005" class="citation book cs1">Lakhani, Karim R.; Wolf, Robert G. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/sloan-school-of-management/15-352-managing-innovation-emerging-trends-spring-2005/readings/lakhaniwolf.pdf">"Why Hackers Do What They Do: Understanding Motivation and Effort in Free/Open Source Software Projects"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Feller, J.; Fitzgerald, B.; Hissam, S.; et al. (eds.). <i>Perspectives on Free and Open Source Software</i>. MIT Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150923034503/http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/sloan-school-of-management/15-352-managing-innovation-emerging-trends-spring-2005/readings/lakhaniwolf.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2015-09-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-03-25</span></span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLevy1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Steven_Levy" title="Steven Levy">Levy, Steven</a> (1984). <i><a href="Hackers%3A_Heroes_of_the_Computer_Revolution" title="Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution">Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution</a></i>. Doubleday. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-385-19195-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRaymondSteele1996" class="citation book cs1">Raymond, Eric S.; Steele, Guy L., eds. (1996). <i><a href="Jargon_File" title="Jargon File">The New Hacker's Dictionary</a></i>. The MIT Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-262-68092-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRaymond2003" class="citation book cs1">Raymond, Eric S. (2003). <i><a href="The_Art_of_Unix_Programming" title="The Art of Unix Programming">The Art of Unix Programming</a></i>. Prentice Hall International. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-13-142901-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTurkle1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Sherry_Turkle" title="Sherry Turkle">Turkle, Sherry</a> (1984). <i>The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit</i>. MIT Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-262-70111-1</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Hacking" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:Hacking">Hacking</a> at Wikibooks</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> The dictionary definition of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Hacker" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:Hacker"><i>Hacker</i></a> at Wiktionary</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Hackers" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Hackers">Hackers</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul>

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